As a matter of fact we all know that world believes in those who are successful not in those who really should be listen. If you are not successful even your family wil  not support you whole life, though should believe that is not always true but it is the experience of many canditates who are preparing for civil serices exam of India, and it is my experience of seeing them. Initially i too was thinking that family will support me but as time passed by everything of me seemed wrong for my family in the path of my success to them. though after I succeeded finally I realised that this was their way of caring me and  they did not have wrong intention in that like my thinking. But today as I am preparing for civil services I can know the real pain of a candidate who is with me. And I have an idea to how to utilise the knowledge of them, if am succesfull in this. For the preparing candidates who are not succesaful but want to do something for the country. I would try to arrange a meeeting in schedule like every month or every sunday. So that their view as a administrator can be shared for the wellbeing of country. Then it can be implemented as soon as possible after discussing it in the meeting itself which are practically possible in this way they will be able to fulfill their dreams of becoming administrator and serving country, and we will be able to use their knowledge. For the best suggestion some prizes may also be given. As this thought came into my mind with the scenario of Allahabad. I would try to elaborate some more points before ending this article and that is on sundays army cadets have their holidays so they can voluntarily participate for the programme and may also provide security in emergency cases and their experience in forces may be shared to attract more people towards forces. This total scenario could take place with the help of some sponsors in the SANGAM GHAT in Allahabad if I am the collector of Allahabad.

Inflation is raging; stock prices are plunging; everyone is worried. What has caused the inflation? And can it be tamed?

First, of course, the phenomenal rise of worldwide oil prices. Not because oil consumption has jumped all of a sudden but because speculators have become active in the ‘oil futures’ market. We cannot ban speculation or ‘future trading’. But we can insulate ourselves from the oil shock.

To achieve this, we should immediately allow the rupee to become stronger. We should revalue the rupee. That will lower the price of oil to the Indian consumer, making a big dent in inflation. Any side effects? Obviously, exports will get affected. But government can help exporters in various ways. China has been doing it for years. For example, the Chinese government allots a piece of land to a loss-making exporter who makes money by developing the land commercially.

We should also curtail our energy consumption. We consume three times more energy, as percentage of GDP, than the world average. There are ways to cut down on energy consumption. Gujarat has shown that raising the groundwater table drastically reduces the energy required for agricultural pumping. Next is the transport sector. The railways consume only one-third the energy needed to move one ton of material over a kilometre by road. Waterways consume even less.

We should use these alternative means of transport more intensively. It is time we develop energy from non-oil sources. The private sector should be encouraged to generate energy from renewable sources like solar, wind, waves, tides, geothermal, hydro, biomass and feed it into the grid. For this they should be offered an attractive price per unit.

Second, while we should welcome foreign investment in manufacturing, we must discourage it in sectors like real estate. And why do we need dollars to keep flowing into India? We have already built a foreign exchange reserve of $300 billion which is enough to meet our import needs for the next two years.

China has an import cover of 11 months and Germany and the US for fewer months. India’s reserves have swollen due to capital inflows rather than exports exceeding imports or profit earned in exports. These inflows are not ‘wealth’. They are liabi-lities.

For developing our foreign exchange reserve we have exported our wealth and got dollars which, in turn, we invested in US treasury bonds thereby financing their infrastructure and economy, not ours. On these treasury bonds we earn a meagre 3 per cent return whereas the government borrows money from market at 8 per cent, losing $15 billion every year which is equal to half the fiscal deficit of the Centre.

Lucknow, Aug 4 (IANS) With a reward of more than half a million rupees on his head, bandit Ambika Prasad Patel alias Thokia, who was gunned down by the Special Task Force (STF) of the Uttar Pradesh police in a fierce gunbattle in the forests of Chitrakoot district early Monday, was among the country’s most wanted bandits.

Thokia carried a cash reward of Rs.500,000 on his head in Uttar Pradesh and an additional Rs.100,000 in Madhya Pradesh.

“Perhaps, this is the highest reward that any dacoit in the country was carrying at present,” Uttar Pradesh Director General of Police Vikram Singh told IANS.

Singh visited the spot at Chilkhori village, about 300 km from here, where the gunbattle between Patel’s gang and the police squad took place.

According to Singh, as many as 60 criminal cases were registered against him since he took to arms in 2001. Most of these cases related to murders, attempts to murder, extortion, loot and kidnapping.

His name spelt terror in a large area spread across eight districts along the Uttar pradesh-Madhya Pradesh border, widely known as Bundelkhand.

The 36-year-old bandit managed to elude police all these years, not merely because of the power of his gun, but also on account of his alleged close nexus with several influential politicians.

His mother Piyari Devi contested the last Uttar Pradesh assembly election as a candidate of the Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD) led by Ajit Singh, the son of well known farmer leader and former prime minister Charan Singh.

One of his aunts, Lotwa, was head of the Lokhariya village council. Another aunt Savita Devi was an elected member of a district council, and yet another aunt Sarita Devi was the head of a development block.

“No sooner our informers gave a tip-off on Thokia’s movements in the Chillkhori forests, our STF got into action. A 24-member STF team, that had earlier been detailed to track down this bandit, was already present in the neighbourhood, so they instantly took positions following which an encounter ensued,” Singh said.

“And it was only after a nearly four-hour long fierce exchange of fire that our cops succeeded in bringing him down,” said Singh.

“Even though other members of his gang managed to escape, we have launched a hot chase and I am sure we will get them soon.”

Besides an AK series Russian made assault rifle, STF recovered a 12-bore double-barrel shotgun, a single-barrel shotgun and a large number of live and used cartridges from the scene of the gunbattle.

“some of his gang members were also injured in the ambush and we are searching for them,” sub-inspector H.S. Yadav of Bharatkoop police station told IANS by telephone from Karvi, about 30 km from here.

Refuting reports that the slain bandit was not Thokia, Singh, who visited the spot, asserted: “We will have a DNA test carried out to ward off such rumours and to further confirm his identity.”

According to police records, Thokia became an outlaw in 2001 when he joined a gang led by Sant Khairwar. Locals in Karvi say his entry into the world of crime followed the rape of his younger sister by an affluent and powerful upper caste villager. After avenging the sister’s rape by killing the rapist, the young Ambika acquired the title of Thokia, never to look back.

With Khairwar’s death in a gunbattle with police, Thokia assumed the gang leader’s position, but shortly thereafter merged his gang with that of then most dreaded bandit Shiv Kumar, better known as Dadua.

Known as a ham-headed, ruthless gangster, he once walked away from the Dadua gang in 2006, only to return to the same gang about a year later, shortly before Dadua was killed in a gunbattle with the police in July 2007.

He was quick to avenge Dadua’s killing, by laying an ambush on the convoy of the STF commandos, returning from the gunbattle to their camp. While six STF personnel were killed on the spot along with the police informer, four policemen were left badly wounded.

It was the gruesome killing of the commandos that provoked STF chief Brij Lal to launch a relentless mission against him, until the bandit fell to their bullets Monday morning.

A class 12 passout, Thokia was also tech-savvy and besides keeping latest weapons, he also used to carry latest mobile phones.

According to STF sources, besides a tip-off by an informer, it was also through mobile surveillance that the cops were successful in tracking him.

From many days we are hearing a lot about Birdflu but today i got to know about Tamiflu, it is not a disease but it is a drug.  Oseltamivir (INN)  is an antiviral drug that is used in the treatment and prophylaxis of both Influenza virus A and Influenza virus B. Like zanamivir, oseltamivir is a neuraminidase inhibitor. It acts as a transition-state analogue inhibitor of influenza neuraminidase, preventing progeny virions from emerging from infected cells.

Oseltamivir was the first orally active neuraminidase inhibitor commercially developed. It is a prodrug, which is hydrolysed hepatically to the active metabolite, the free carboxylate of oseltamivir (GS4071). It was developed by Gilead Sciences and is currently marketed by Hoffmann-La Roche (Roche) under the trade name TAMILFLU. In Japan, it is marketed by Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., which is more than 50% owned by Roche. Oseltamivir is generally available by prescription only.

Roche estimates that 50 million people have been treated with oseltamivir. The majority of these have been in Japan, where an estimated 35 million have been treated.

With increasing fears about the potential for a new influenza pandemic, oseltamivir has received substantial media attention. Governments, corporations, and even some private individuals are stockpiling the drug. Production is currently sufficient to meet the demand for seasonal influenza and for government stockpiling. It is possible that shortages could re-emerge in the event of an actual influenza pandemic.
But as every drug has good and bad effects it also have some side effects. I would only talk about  Neurological effects. There are concerns that oseltamivir may cause dangerous psychological side effects in some people. This stems from cases in Japan, where the drug is most heavily prescribed. Concern has focused on teenagers, but problems have also been reported in children and adults.

In March 2007, Japan’s Health Ministry warned that oseltamivir should not be given to children aged 10 to 19.  The Ministry had previously decided, in May 2004, to change the literature accompanying oseltamivir to include neurological and psychological disorders as possible adverse effects, including: impaired consciousness, abnormal behavior, and hallucinations.

According to Japan’s Health Ministry, between 2004 and March 2007, fifteen people aged 10 to 19 have been injured or killed by jumps or fallen from buildings after taking oseltamivir, and one 17-year-old died after he jumped in front of a truck. A renewed investigation of the Japanese data was completed in April 2007. It found that 128 patients had been reported to behave abnormally after taking oseltamivir since 2001. Forty-three of them were under 10 years old, 57 patients were aged 10 to 19, and 28 patients were aged 20 or over. Eight people, including five teens and three adults, had died as a result.

In November 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) amended the warning label to include the possible side effects of delirium, hallucinations, or other related behavior.  This went further than the FDA’s previous pronouncement, from a year before, that there was insufficient evidence to claim a causal link between oseltamivir use and the deaths of 12 Japanese children (only two were from neurological problems, although more have died since then).  The change to a more cautionary stance was attributed to 103 new reports that the FDA received of delirium, hallucinations and other unusual psychiatric behavior, mostly involving Japanese patients, received between August 29, 2005 and July 6, 2006. This was an increase from the 126 similar cases logged between the drug’s approval in 1999 and August 2005.

The geographical evidence as to be found in the hymns of Vedas thros some light on the course of Indo-Aryan migration and the origin of Hinduism. Whether the Indo-Aryans came from Central Asia or not depends largely on the interpretation of the geographical allusions in the Rig and Yajur Vedas. The hymns in praise of rivers in the 10th blcok are interesting. The author while singing the greatness of the Sindhu enumerates at least 19 rivers including the Ganges. The fifth Stanza gives a list of 10 streams, small and great-Ganges, Yamuna, Saraswati, Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Maruwardwan (in J&K), Sushoma (Rowalpindi District) and probably Kanshi in the same district. This system of rivers did not remain the Saraswati. The existing delta of the Indus has been formed since the time of Alexander the Great.

The Vedic hymns reveal the initial Aryan settlements in India : western tributaries of the Indus, the Gomti (modern Gomal) the Krumu (modern Kurram) and the Kubha (modern Kabul). The one river mentioned in the North of Kabul is Suvastu (modern swat).

But the main focus of the Rig Vedic settlements was in the Punjab and the Delhi region. When the Rig-Vedic hymns were compiled the focus of Aryan settlement was the region between the Yamuna and the Sutlaj, south of modern Ambala and laong the upper course of river Saraswati. The most frequently mentioned rivers are the Sindhu (Indus), the Sarasvati (modern Sarsuti), the Drishadvati (modern Chitang), and the five streams of the Punjab.
Regarding the other geographical features, the Vedic poets knew the Himalayas but not the land south of Yamuna, since they did not mention the Vindhayas, In the east also the Aryans did not expand beyond Yamuna; for the river Ganga is mentioned only once in one late hymn.

And possibly, the Aryans had no knowledge of the oceans since the word ’samudra’ in the Vedic period meant a pool of water. But the later Vedic knowledge shows that the Aryans knew the two seas, the Himalayas and the Vindhyan mountainas and generally the entire Indo-Gangetic plain.

The Aryans used various kinds of pottery and the sites where the painted grey were are found, confirm the Aryan settlements. The Vedic texts show that the Aryans expanded from the Punjab over the whole of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The Bharatas and Purus known as Kuru people first lived between Sarasvati and Drishadvati just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon the Kurus occupied Delhi and the Upper portion of the doab, that is the area called Kurukshetra, After this event, the Kurus joined with the people called Panchalas who occupied the middle portion of the Doab or the moder districts of bareilly Dadaun and Farrukabad. It was the Kuru-Panchalas who had set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in the district of Meerut. Later the Kauravas and the Pandavas belonging to the same Kuru clan fougth out a battle which led to the extinction of the Kuru clan.

And by 600 B.C. the Aryans spread from the Doab further east to Kosala in Eastern U.P. and Vedeha in north Bihar. The former town is associated with the story of Ramchandra, but it is not mentioned in Vedic literature.

Civil Services Introduction A country as vast and thickly populated as India needs a well organised government machinery for proper governance. There are two facets to the administration of a country. One is security for which the country has its defence services and the other is the non-military part, which is taken care of by the Civil Services.

The origin of the IAS can be traced back to the year of India’s independence, 1947. The IAS operates at three levels -central, district and divisional. Work at the central level involves the framing and implementation of policies. The functions of the IAS at the district level encompass all district affairs with special emphasis on development. General administration and development work is the responsibility of the IAS at the divisional level. The post of an IAS officer carries a lot of responsibility. The work definition of an IAS officer would encompass framing, modifying and interpreting policy matters in consultation with the concerned Minister. Implementation of policies calls for supervision and also travelling to the places where the decisions taken are being implemented. Implementation entails disbursement of funds, which calls for personal supervision. The officers are answerable to the Parliament for any irregularities that may occur. At the top of the hierarchy of IAS officers is the Cabinet Secretary followed by Secretary/ Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary, Director, Under Secretary and then the Junior Scale Officers. These posts are filled according to seniority.

The Indian Police Service (IPS) As the name suggests, the main responsibility of the IPS is public safety and security. The Indian Police Service is divided into various departments like the Crime Branch, the Criminal Investigation Department, Home Guards and the Traffic Bureau. The area of functioning for the IPS can be broadly divided into: maintenance of law and order, crime prevention and detection, traffic control and accident prevention and management. The IPS also has several policing agencies like the Intelligence Bureau, the Central Bureau of Investigation, Cabinet Secretariat Security, Border Security Force and the Central Reserve Police Force. After the initial probation of two years, an IPS officer is given charge as an Additional Superintendent of Police of a district. This post is usually held for two years and then comes the next appointment, that of the Superintendent of Police and then the post of the Deputy Inspector General (DIG). The hierarchy in the IPS cadre is like this – the Director General of Police (DG) is the head of the entire Police force of a state. Special divisions of the Police force like the Border Security Force, the CBI, etc., have a Director General at the helm.

The Indian Forest Service (IFS) The maintenance of the natural resources of the country is very essential for a balanced all round development of the country. Maintenance of forests is so important for maintaining the ecological balance that the Indian Forest Service has been set up for this very purpose. The All India Forest Service came into being in 1966. The areas of functioning for the Indian Forest Service include protection and conservation of forests, wildlife and forest produce.

History of HINDUSTANI (Hindi & Urdu) can be divided into following stages:-

1 Antiquity (Prakrits)
2 Middle Ages
3 Islamic empires
4 Colonial period
5 Post-Partition 
Antiquity (Prakrits)
600 BCE: late Vedic Sanskrit.
500 BCE: Prakrit texts of Buddhists and Jains originate (Eastern India)
400 BCE: Panini composes his formal Sanskrit grammar (Gandhara), reflecting transition from Vedic to formal Paninian (Classical) Sanskrit
322 BCE: Brahmi script inscriptions by Mauryas in Prakrit (Pali)
250 BCE: first records of Classical Sanskrit. [Vidhyanath Rao]
100 BCE-100 CE: Sanskrit gradually replaces Prakrit in inscriptions
320: The Gupta or Siddha-matrika script emerges.

 Middle Ages
400: Apabhramsha in Kalidas’s Vikramuurvashiiya
550: Dharasena of Valabhi’s inscription mentions Apabhramsha literature
779: Regional languages mentioned by Udyotan Suri in “Kuvalayamala”
769: Siddha Sarahpa composes Dohakosh, considered the first Hindi poet
800: Bulk of the Sanskrit literature after this time is commentaries. 
933: Shravakachar of Devasena, considered the first Hindi book.
1100: Modern Devanagari script emerges
1145-1229: Hemachandra writes on Apabhramsha grammar

 Islamic empires
Islamic empires in India in the late Medieval to Early Modern period.

1283: Amir Khusro’s pahelis and mukaris. Uses term “Hindavi”
1398-1518: Kabir’s works mark origin of “Nirguna-Bhakti” period
1370-: Love-story period originated by “Hansavali” of Asahat
1400-1479: Raighu: last of the great Apabhramsha poets
1450: “Saguna Bhakti” period starts with Ramananda
1580: Early Dakkhini work “Kalmitul-hakayat” of Burhanuddin Janam
1585: “Bhaktamal” of Nabhadas: an account of Hindi Bhakta-poets
1601: “Ardha-Kathanak” by Banarasidas, first autobiography in Hindi
1604: “Adi Granth” a compilation of works of many poets by Guru Arjan Dev.
1532-1623: Tulsidas, author of “Ramacharita Manasa”.
1623: “Gora-badal ki katha” of Jatmal, first book in Khari Boli dialect

FROM HERE THE STANDARD DIALECT STARTED
1643: “Reeti” poetry tradition commences according to Ramchandra Shukla
1645: Shahjahan builds Delhi fort, language in the locality starts to be termed Urdu.
1667-1707: Vali’s compositions become popular, Urdu starts replacing Persian among Delhi nobility. It is often called “Hindi” by Sauda, Meer etc.
1600-1825: Poets (Bihari to Padmakar) supported by rulers of Orchha and other domains.

 Colonial period
Modern Hindi literature emerges during the Colonial period.

1796: Earliest type-based Devanagari printing (John Borthwick Gilchrist, Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language, Calcutta) 

1805: Lalloo Lal’s Premsagar , published for Fort William College, Calcutta 
1813-46: Maharaja Swati Tirunal Rama Varma(Travancore) composed verses in Hindi along with South Indian languages.
1826: “Udanta Martanda” Hindi weekly from Calcutta
1837: Shardha Ram Phillauri, author of “Om Jai Jagdish Hare” born
1839,1847: “History of Hindi Literature” by Garcin de Tassy in French
1833-86: Gujarati Poet Narmad proposed Hindi as India’s national language
1850: The term “Hindi” no longer used for what is now called “Urdu”.
1854: “Samachar Sudhavarshan” Hindi daily from Calcutta
1873: Mahendra Bhattachary’s “Padarth-vigyan” (Chemistry) in Hindi
1877: Novel Bhagyavati by Shardha Ram Phillauri
1886: “Bharatendu period” of modern Hindi literature starts
1893 Founding of the Nagari Pracharini Sabha in Benares 
1900: “Dvivedi period” starts. Nationalist writings
1900: “Indumati” story by Kishorilal Goswami in “Sarasvati”
1913: “Raja Harishchandra”, first Hindi movie by Dadasaheb Phalke
1918-1938: “Chhayavad period”
1918: “Dakshin Bharat Hindi Prachara Sabha” founded by Mahatma Gandhi.
1929: “History of Hindi Literature” by Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla
1931: “Alam Ara” first Hindi talking movie
1930’s: Hindi typewriters (“Nagari lekhan Yantra”)
1936: Kamayani, the most celebrated Hindi epic poem, written by Prasad

 Post-Partition
The 1947 partition of India sees the separation of Hindustani (Khariboli) into two standardized dialects, Urdu and Standard Hindi.

1949: Official Language Act makes the use of Hindi in Central Government Offices mandatory
1949-50: Hindi accepted as the “official language of the Union” in the constitution. 
1952: The Basic Principles Committee of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan recommends that Urdu be the state language.
1958: definition of Modern Standard Hindi by the Central Hindi Directorate
1965: Opposition to “Blind Hindi-imposition by Congress” in Tamilnadu, where Tamil- the predominant Dravidian Language, lives brings DMK to power.Congress lost its base.
1975: English medium private schools start asserting themselves socially, politically, financially.
1985-6: Devanagari word processor, Devyani DTP software, both from Dataflow.
1987-88: Frans Velthuis creates Devanagari metafont.
1990: According to World Almanac and Book of Facts Hindi-Urdu has passed English to become the second most widely spoken language in the world. 
1991: ITRANS encoding scheme developed by Avinash Chopde allows Hindi documents in Roman and Devanagari on the Internet.
1997: Prime Minister Deve Gowda emphasises promotion of Hindi and the regional languages, having himself learned Hindi recently.
1997: Hindi Newspaper Nai Dunia on the web. 
1998: Thiru Karunanidhi, the DMK leader, recites a Hindi verse during a political campaign, indicating a change in views.

Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods, dating back to the Neolithic era. The first breads produced were probably cooked versions of a grain-paste, made from ground cereal grains and water, and may have been developed by accidental cooking or deliberate experimentation with water and grain flour. Descendants of these early breads are still commonly made from various grains worldwide, including the Mexican tortilla, Indian chapatis, rotis and naans, Scottish oatcake, North American johnnycake, Middle Eastern Pita bread (Kmaj in Arabic and Pitot in Hebrew) and Ethiopian injera. The basic flat breads of this type also formed a staple in the diet of many early civilizations with the Sumerians eating a type of barley flat cake, and the 12th century BC Egyptians being able to purchase a flat bread called ta from stalls in the village streets. The development of leavened bread can probably also be traced to prehistoric times. Yeast spores occur everywhere, including the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest will become naturally leavened. Although leavening is likely of prehistoric origin, the earliest archaeological evidence is from ancient Egypt. Scanning electron microscopy has detected yeast cells in some ancient Egyptian loaves. However, ancient Egyptian bread was made from emmer wheat and has a dense crumb. In cases where yeast cells are not visible, it is difficult, by visual examination, to determine whether the bread was leavened. As a result, the extent to which bread was leavened in ancient Egypt remains uncertain.

There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce “a lighter kind of bread than other peoples.” Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast. The most common source of leavening however was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to utilize as a form of sourdough starter.

Even within antiquity there was a wide variety of breads available. In the Deipnosophistae, the Greek author Athenaeus describes some of the breads, cakes, cookies, and pastries available in the Classical world. Among the breads mentioned are griddle cakes, honey-and-oil bread, mushroom shaped loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. The type and quality of flour used to produce bread could also vary as noted by Diphilus when he declared “bread made of wheat, as compared with that made of barley, is more nourishing, more digestible, and in every way superior.” In order of merit, the bread made from refined [thoroughly sieved] flour comes first, after that bread from ordinary wheat, and then the unbolted, made of flour that has not been sifted.”

 Peasant sharing bread, from Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio, France, 14th century. (Bibliothèque nationale)Within medieval Europe bread served not only as a staple food but also as part of the table service. In the standard table setting of the day the trencher, a piece of stale bread roughly 6 inches by 4 inches (15 cm by 10 cm), served as an absorbent plate. At the completion of a meal the trencher could then be eaten, given to the poor, or fed to the dogs. It was not until the fifteenth century that trenchers made of wood started to replace the bread variety.

Otto Frederick Rohwedder is considered to be the father of sliced bread. In 1912 Rohwedder started work on inventing a machine that sliced bread, but bakeries were reluctant to use it since they were concerned the sliced bread would go stale. It was not until 1928, when Rohwedder invented a machine that both sliced and wrapped the bread, that sliced bread caught on. A bakery in Chillicothe, Missouri was the first to use this machine to produce sliced bread. Sliced bread is first a whole loaf of bread cut down to smaller slices.

For generations, white bread was considered the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark bread. However, in most western societies, the connotations reversed in the late 20th century with dark bread becoming preferred as having superior nutritional value while white bread became associated with lower-class ignorance of nutrition.

Another major advance happened in 1961 with the development of the Chorleywood Bread Process which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf. This process is now widely used around the world.

Bread is a popular food in Western and most other societies, although East Asian societies typically prefer rice or noodles. It is often made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven. Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), common wheat (also known as bread wheat) is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, but bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including durum, spelt and emmer), rye, barley, maize (or corn), and oats, usually, but not always, in combination with wheat flour. Although common wheat is best suited for making highly-risen white bread, other wheat species are capable of giving a good crumb. Spelt bread (Dinkelbrot) continues to be widely consumed in Germany, and emmer bread was a staple food in ancient Egypt. Canadian bread is known for its heartier consistency due to high protein levels in Canadian flour. European sweetbread (strucla)  Four loaves, Naan, a type of Indian bread French bread,Breads and Bread Rolls at a bakery,  Tin Vienna bread, Pre-sliced bread, Roti, a type of flatbread.
 The amount of water and flour are the most significant measurements in a bread recipe, as they affect texture and crumb the most. Professional bakers use a system of percentages known as Bakers’ Percentage in their recipe formulations, and measure ingredients by weight instead of by volume. Measurement by weight is much more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, especially for the dry ingredients.

Flour is always 100%, and the rest of the ingredients are a percent of that amount by weight. Common table bread in the U.S. uses approximately 50% water, resulting in a finely-textured, light, bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles, and a coarser bread crumb. One pound (500 g) of flour will yield a standard loaf of bread, or two French loaves. Calcium propionate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds.

Wikipedia originally developed from another encyclopedia project, Nupedia.
Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed by a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis, Inc, a web portal company. Its main figures were Jimmy Wales, Bomis CEO, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, switching to the GNU Free Documentation License before Wikipedia’s founding at the urging of Richard Stallman.Larry SangerLarry Sanger and Jimmy Wales are the founders of Wikipedia.While Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, Sanger is usually credited with the counter-intuitive strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. On January 10, 2001, Larry Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a “feeder” project for Nupedia.  Wikipedia was formally launched on January 15, 2001, as a single English-language edition at wikipedia.com and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list.  Wikipedia’s policy of “neutral point-of-view” was codified in its initial months, and was similar to Nupedia’s earlier “nonbiased” policy. Otherwise, there were relatively few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. Graph of the article count for the English Wikipedia, from January 10, 2001, to September 9, 2007 (the date of the two-millionth article).Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and search engine indexing. It grew to approximately 20,000 articles, and 18 language editions, by the end of 2001. By late 2002 it had reached 26 language editions, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the closing stages 2004.  Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former’s servers went down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. As of December 2007, English Wikipedia had over 2 million articles, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, eclipsing even the Yongle Encyclopedia (1407), which had held the record for nearly 600 years. Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in a perceived English-centric Wikipedia, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create the Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. Later that year, Wales announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and its website was moved to wikipedia.org. Various other projects have since forked from Wikipedia for editorial reasons. Wikinfo does not require neutral point of view and allows original research. New Wikipedia-inspired projects — such as Citizendium, Scholarpedia, Amapedia and Google’s Knol — have been started to address perceived limitations of Wikipedia, such as its policies on peer review, original research and commercial advertising.

The Wikimedia Foundation was created from Wikipedia and Nupedia on June 20, 2003.  It applied to the United States Patent and Trademark Office to trademark Wikipedia® on September 17, 2004. The mark was granted registration status on January 10, 2006. Trademark protection was accorded by Japan on December 16, 2004, and in the European Union on January 20, 2005. Technically a service mark, the scope of the mark is for: “Provision of information in the field of general encyclopedic knowledge via the Internet”. There are plans to license the usage of the Wikipedia trademark for some products, such as books or DVDs.  In October 2007 the foundation announced that it plans to move its headquarters from St. Petersburg, Florida, to San Francisco, California, in February 2008. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine.